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2. Vesicular Stomatitis in Horses
By Kathy Anderson, UNL Extension Horse Specialist
Introduction
Vesicular stomatitis is a viral disease which affects horses, cattle, swine, and occasionally sheep and goats. Additionally, numerous species of wild animals including deer, bobcats, goats, raccoons and monkeys are susceptible. Not only can the virus causing vesicular stomatitis affect a wide variety of animals, handlers of infected animals can also become infected with vesicular stomatitis.
Vesicular stomatitis most commonly occurs during warm months in the Southwest region of the United States, particularly along river ways and in valleys. Recent out breaks in the Southwest have occurred from May to December in 1995, 1998, and 2005. Livestock owners and veterinarians must be on the alert for animals displaying signs characteristic of this disease.
Blister-like lesions may form in the mouth and on the dental pad, tongue, lips, nostrils, hooves and teats of infected animals. These blisters swell and break, leaving raw tissue so painful that infected animals go off feed and water, suffer mild to severe weight loss, and may show signs of lameness.
Aside from the economic loss to livestock producers, vesicular stomatitis is significant because the outward signs are similar to (but less severe than) those of foot-and-mouth disease. Foot-mouth disease is a devastating foreign disease of cloven-hooved animals that has not occurred in the United States since1929. The only method to differentiate between these diseases is through laboratory tests.
Because of the similarity of vesicular stomatitis to foot-and-mouth disease, the potential negative impact on livestock production, and its public health implications, the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) works to keep this disease from becoming established in the United States. Vesicular stomatitis is recognized internationally as a reportable disease and exports of livestock, horses, and animal products from the United States would be restricted if vesicular stomatitis were allowed to spread in the United States.
Clinical Signs
The incubation period for vesicular stomatitis ranges from 2 to 8 days. The most common early signs are excessive salivation and drooling. Increased body temperature may also occur either immediately prior to the development of lesions, or at the same time. Close examination of the mouth reveals blister-like lesions on the gums and lips and lesions may also occur on the nostrils, teats, and coronary band. In horses, the lesions generally occur on the upper surface of the tongue. Whereas in cattle, lesions usually appear on the hard palate, lips and gums sometimes extend to the muzzle and nostrils.
When the blisters break open, painful ulcers develop that cause horses to drool and froth from the mouth. This sign can be mistaken for biting problems, dental abnormalities, or colic. Infected animals generally go off feed and suffer mild to significant weight loss. Additionally, mild lameness may occur if lesions develop along the coronary band. Some cases of severe lameness have been reported in which hooves were sloughed.
The number of affected animals on a premise will vary. Five to 10 percent of horses within an infected herd typically show clinical signs. If there are no complications, such as secondary infections, affected horses may recover in as quickly as 2 weeks. However, in more severe cases, ulcers can take up to 2 months to heal and horses continue to be contagious while the lesions continue to heal. Fortunately, vesicular stomatitis does not generally cause death.
Transmission
Vesicular stomatitis has been confirmed only in North and South America. The disease is endemic in warmer regions of the Western Hemisphere, but outbreaks occasionally occur in temperate geographic areas .
How vesicular stomatitis spreads is not fully understood; insect vectors, mechanical transmission, and movement of animals are all thought to play a role in the spread of this disease. One type of vesicular stomatitis is known to be spread by phlebotomine sandflies. Once introduced onto a premise, the disease apparently moves from animal to animal by contact or exposure to saliva or fluid from ruptured blisters.
Humans can contract vesicular stomatitis when handling affected animals if proper biosafety methods are not practiced. Prevalence of this disease in humans may be underreported as it may often go undetected or be misdiagnosed. In people, vesicular stomatitis causes acute influenza-like illness with symptoms such as fever, muscle aches, headache, and malaise . People who handle potentially infected horses should wear gloves and should not allow saliva and blister fluids to come in contact with open wounds or mucous membranes such as the eyes or mouth. Producers and other individuals who handle horses and experience symptoms should contact their physician immediately.
Diagnosis and Treatment
Laboratory blood tests can be used to diagnose vesicular stomatitis. Additionally, the virus can be isolated from epithelium around vesicles or from vesicular fluid. Producers need to differentiate between vesicles in the mouth caused by vesicular stomatitis and vesicles caused by photosensitization or trauma due to rough feed. Other vesicular viral diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease do not occur in horses.
There is no specific treatment or cure for vesicular stomatitis other than supportive care. Owners can protect their animals from this disease by avoiding congregation of animals in the vicinity where vesicular stomatitis has occurred. Mild antiseptic mouthwashes may provide comfort and more rapid recovery to an affected horse. Good sanitation and quarantine practices on affected farms usually contain the infection until it dies out of it own accord.
When a definite diagnosis is made on a farm, the following procedures are recommended:
- Separate animals with lesions from healthy animals, preferably by stabling.
- Animals on pasture apparently are affected more frequently with this disease.
- As a precautionary procedure, do not move animals from a premises affected by vesicular stomatitis for at least 30 days after the last lesion has healed (unless they are going direct to slaughter).
- Implement on-farm insect control programs that include:
- Elimination or reduction of insect breeding areas
- Use of insecticide sprays or insecticide-treated ear tags on animals.
- Use protective measures when handling affected animals to avoid human exposure to this disease.
Economic Impact of Vesicular Stomatitis
The majority of horse owners with infected animals will suffer economic losses in caring for sick animals. In an effort to assess the financial impact vesicular stomatitis can have on horse owners, New Mexico horse owners were surveyed following the 1995 outbreak in the Western United States. Costs, including labor, veterinary fees, and medicine, were estimated to be $115 for each infected horse.
Restricting horse movement and refraining from participation in events should prevent spread of vesicular stomatitis, but lead to additional economic loss. When a horse tests positive for the disease, generally it is not allowed to move between states or countries. Infected horses also are not allowed to compete in most shows, rodeos, fairs, and other events. When such events are cancelled due to an outbreak, owners of healthy horses suffer as well. Health certificates within 24 to 48 hours of transport may be required at some facilities or to transport horses across state lines. Additionally, certain events may require each horse to be examined for the presence of lesions prior to being allowed on the grounds. Horse owners should check to determine restrictions prior to the movement of horses.
Report Suspicious Cases:
Veterinarians and livestock owners who suspect an animal may have vesicular stomatitis or any other vesicular disease should immediately contact State or Federal animal health authorities. To report suspect cases or answers to questions regarding vesicular stomatitis in Nebraska, contact the Nebraska State Veterinarian at 402/471-2351.
For more information, contact USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services Emergency Programs, 4700 River Road, Unit 41, Riverdale, MD 207371231, (301) 734-8073.
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3. Vital Signs: What They Are and How to Take Them in a Horse
By Kathy Anderson, UNL Extension Horse Specialist
Vital signs are physical indications that let you know that your horse is living, such as temperature, pulse and respiration. These signs can be observed, measured, and monitored to indicate the horse’s level of physical functioning. These signs change with age, sex, weight, exercise tolerance, and condition. In order to tell what is abnormal for your horse, you must first know what is normal.
You can practice by looking at the overall appearance of your horse. You want a horse that is bright, alert, and responsive. In veterinary records, this is abbreviated as BAR. You also want to practice by measuring the horse’s body condition using the body condition scoring system by Henneke on a regular basis. Condition scoring your horse about every three weeks or so is usually best. You also want to give the horse a physical exam when it is healthy to determine what is normal for the horse.
In order to measure temperature, pulse and respiration, you only really need one tool. To measure the temperature of your horse, you will need a rectal thermometer. You can get a digital rectal thermometer very inexpensively in any tack shop or tack catalog. You could also purchase a stethoscope for measuring the heart rate or pulse rather than just feeling the pulse. This can also help you determine if your horse has any heart irregularities, since you can hear the beat rather than just feel it.
A healthy horse’s temperature will range between 99 and 101 degrees Fahrenheit. A foal will usually have a higher temperature than an older horse. In order to measure the temperature, you will need to stand close to your horse, next to his hind leg on the left but not directly behind him. Standing closer is better because if he kicks, you will be close to the horse and this will lessen the force of the kick if he does attempt to kick you. If you are kicked, it will not be as painful as it would be if you were standing further away and the horse’s leg had time to gain force. You might want to consider tying a hair clip or paper holder to the thermometer so that you can clip it to the horse’s tail while you are waiting for the reading. Make sure the thermometer is turned on. Carefully pull the tail aside, speaking to your horse, and gently insert the thermometer into the rectum. You might want to lubricate the thermometer with some KY jelly in order to make the process more effective and less uncomfortable for your horse. Now wait until the thermometer beeps or flashes and take your reading. That is your horse’s current temperature.
A healthy horse’s pulse will range between 30 and 40 beats per minute at rest. A foal will usually have a higher pulse. A horse that has just been exercised will also have a higher pulse, but should recover to normal within about 5 minutes if he or she is fit. You can measure the pulse by pressing firmly with your forefinger on the facial artery (near the front of the left jawbone). Never use your thumb because then you may feel your own pulse. If you choose to use a stethoscope, place it on the left side of the horse close to his elbow right near the leg where the girth would go. Each heartbeat will make a lub-dup sound, and one of these sounds counts as one. Count the number of beats you feel or lub-dups you hear in 15 seconds, then multiply by 4. This is your horse’s pulse rate.
A healthy horse’s respiration will range between 8 and 16 breaths per minute. Again, a foal will usually have a higher respiration rate as will a horse that has just exercised. You can measure the respiration by watching the rise and fall of your horse’s flank. One rise and fall equals one breath. Count the number of breaths you see in 15 seconds, and then multiply by 4. This is your horse’s respiration rate.
Remember that excitement, hot weather, pain, and fever will all increase temperature, heart rate and respiration. Knowing what is normal for your horse when it is resting will help you know when something is not right. Often, changes in these vital signs will occur even before you see other signs of problems in your horse. It is good to record this information on a regular basis so that you can track changes in the normal baseline of your horse. By being familiar with vital signs and how to take them, you may be able to determine when your horse is ill even before he shows any signs of the problem affecting him.
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4. Horse Health
By Monte Stauffer & Bruce Treffer, UNL Extension Educators
Spring is an important time when we consider the health of a horse. Most horses are idle during the winter, unless you’ve been riding in your own indoor arena all winte. The pace of horse activities will begin picking up as days get longer and warmer, and we ask our horses to come out of hibernation and perform. Spring is also a time for a tune up.
Several vaccinations or boosters should also be given in the spring. As always, checking with your veterinarian is the place to start. Spring vaccinations should include Eastern and Western Sleeping Sickness, Tetanus, Influenza, Rhino pneumonitis, and West Nile, as a minimum program. Those receiving their first exposure to a vaccine will get a booster in about 30 days. Broodmares do not get a “rhino” shot now, but we’ll get them one after they foal and before they are bred.
Consult your veterinarian about his advice on additional vaccinations. This will depend on disease problems in your area, as well as how many and what other horses your animals will come in contact with. Other vaccinations you can ask your veterinarian about are for rabies, strangles, and Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis (EPM).
Teeth should be checked to see if sharp points or other problems have developed in your horse's mouth. Horse's teeth are very important part of the digestive system. As horses grind their feed to make it more digestible, their teeth many develop sharp points. These points make it painful to chew and horses will begin to swallow feed that has not been ground up enough. An annual check of their teeth by a veterinarian or an experienced horseman can determine if this is a problem. Filing or floating of the sharp points will solve this problem.
A parasite control program should continue throughout the year. The frequency and products used are based on the level of parasites and opportunities your horse has to be reinfested. The minimum program should include a de-worming at least twice per year. Deworming now with a wide spectrum product that has the ability to also get bots is a good idea, if it has not already been done.
Proper hoof care can make the difference between a sound and lame horse. Hooves that are allowed to get too long can crack, spread, and change the correct angle of the hoof and pastern. Any of these situations can cause lameness that may permanent. Hooves should be shod if they wear off faster on rocks and pavement than they are growing. Most horses don’t need shoes if they spend the majority of their time on soft ground.
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5. Horse Feeding
By Monte Stauffer, UNL Extension Educator
As we consider horse nutrition, we should first understand how horses are different than other kinds of animals. A horse has a very small stomach compared to a cow. Usually the horse’s stomach is about one tenth the size of a cow’s stomach. This is the reason that horses do best with small frequent meals. This can be done by feeding a horse two or three times per day or keep forage such as hay or pasture in front of the horse at all times. The only digestive problem horses can experience by continuous access to forage is founder or laminites. This problem is caused when horses over eat succulent new grass. This usually occurs when hungry horses are first put on new grass in the spring.
Feeding horses is sometimes more of an art than a science. Horses can be limited fed or fed free choice. Mature horses should receive at least one and a half percent of there body weight as the forage portion of their diet. Horses can be fed free choice forage as pasture or hay. If their energy, protein, mineral, or vitamin requirements are not met, a concentrate of grain mixture can be fed.
Fats or oils can be added to grain mixes to increase the energy concentration of the mixture. Currently, with low grain prices, the addition of fat or oils is not as economically feasible as when grain prices are high. Fats are more beneficial in a ration when the energy requirements of the horse are very high and large amounts of grain are being fed.
A good quality hay or pasture should be fed.. This can be grass, alfalfa, or a mixture. Alfalfa is usually higher in energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins. Hay should be leafy, clean, free of mold and dust, and not excessively mature. Hay can be fed as big round, big square, or little square bales. The larger bales are usually less expensive per ton but harder to handle if you don’t have the right equipment.
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6. Horse Owners- Be Cautious With Your Forages
By Gary Lesoing, UNL Extension Educator
In the past couple years there have been important issues that horse owners need to be aware of when buying hay. The first is a relatively new discovery about switchgrass that was brought to my attention by University of Nebraska Forage Specialist, Dr. Bruce Anderson. According to Dr. Anderson, switchgrass should not be fed to horses, because it can make horses extra sensitive to sunlight or even poison them. The problem with switchgrass is that it contains the chemical compounds saponins, which may cause serious health problems in horses. These compounds can cause severe reactions in horses, including photosensitization, destruction of red blood cells, and liver disease, which can lead to the death of a horse. If affected animals are removed from switchgrass early, they recover normally.
The primary saponin in switchgrass is called diosgenin. It is not known how this compound reacts in horses. Because the discovery of this problem is so new, it is difficult to determine what conditions are most dangerous. It appears this compound is stable when dry, so switchgrass hay may be just as dangerous as grass. There may be some risk in pastures that contain switchgrass as part of a mixture, but the danger must be low or we would have seen more problems years ago.
Another concern is high numbers of blister beetles in alfalfa hay. As most horse owners know, blister beetles are toxic to horses. The problem with blister beetles is that they produce cantharidin, a chemical that horses are especially susceptible to and that remains toxic even in dead beetles. Small doses can reduce milk production and weight gain in cattle and sheep. In horses cantharidin can cause inflammation, frequent urination, elevated temperature, depression, increased heart rate, dehydration, sweating and diarrhea.
It is difficult to determine if we will have high blister beetle populations in alfalfa fields this year, but if you are purchasing alfalfa or cutting your own alfalfa for horses, there are some precautions you can take to reduce the potential of having a problem with blister beetles.
First, blister beetles swarm and do not travel far. You can usually find the majority of them within 50 yards of the field border. You may want to consider using the hay for horses from the inside of the field, rather than around the outside of the field. While insecticides can be used for control around field margins or borders, this increases the cost of production and often kills beneficial insects, such as honey bees. If blister beetle levels are high in your alfalfa and you feel spraying is your best option, insecticides such as Sevin or Warrior can be used especially around the field margins.
Another method to reduce the risk of blister beetles in your alfalfa hay is to mow alfalfa or swath it without mechanical conditioning. If alfalfa is conditioned, a large number can be crushed and killed by the rollers. A horse eating this hay could consume over a 100 beetles in a small quantity of hay. If a conditioner is not used, the beetles can crawl and fly away after the alfalfa is cut.
If you suspect blister beetle poisoning, contact a veterinarian as soon as possible. Animals can die within 72 hours. There are three blister beetles most common in Nebraska- striped, gray and black. Striped blister beetles contain the most cantharidin, about 5 times more than black blister beetles. It takes more than 120 striped blister beetles to kill an 825 pound horse, but 1,700 of the less toxic black blister beetles.
Another concern with forages for horses is tall fescue. Although not a new problem, this can still be an issue, especially if you have a broad mare grazing on fescue pasture or feeding it fescue grass hay. Tall fescue isn’t as common a pasture grass in Nebraska as bromegrass or orchardgrass, but it is being used to some extent for pasture or hay. It is more common in Missouri and states to the southeast.
Tall fescue is planted because it is easy to establish, it is hardy, it tolerates close grazing and stands up to heavy horse traffic and is drought tolerant. Unfortunately most tall fescue is infected with an endophyte fungus that causes toxicity problems. Common problems in horses from fescue toxicity include: abortions, prolong gestation, difficult births, thickened or retained placentas and little or no milk production.
If you aren’t sure if you have a pasture or grass hay with tall fescue in it, first determine if you have tall fescue and if so, test it for endophytes. Broad mares should be removed from fescue pasture or fescue hay during the last 60-90 days of pregnancy. For questions about these issues contact your local UNL Extension office.
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7. Fertilizing Pasture Grasses
By Bruce Anderson, UNL Extension
Spring is approaching and cool-season grass pastures soon will green-up. So we should begin thinking about fertilizing. Here’s how to decide if it's worth it.
Grass growth is stimulated in pastures by fertilizer just like it is in your lawn. The key to profitable fertilizing of pastures, though, is to combine fertilizer with efficient harvest of the extra growth. Would you fertilize your sweet corn patch and then drive through it just before its ready to harvest? Of course not -- you'd knock down and lose much of the produce.
But that's just about what you're doing when you fertilize pastures in spring, and then let your animals graze continuously on one pasture throughout the growing season. They trample some of the grass, manure and foul some of the grass, bed down on some of the grass, and simply refuse to eat some of the grass.
So when all is said and done, less than one-third of the grass your pasture produced will end up in the mouth and stomach of your livestock. It's pretty hard to make fertilizer pay like that.
But fertilizer does pay if you manage grazing so more of what you grow actually gets eaten. This will happen if you subdivide pastures with some cross-fences and control when and where your animals graze.
Give animals access to no more than one-fourth of your pasture at a time, or even less, and then graze off about one-half of the growth before moving to another subdivision. And since your pastures probably grow faster than you can use them anyhow in spring, why not wait until mid-May to fertilize some of them for extra summer growth. More of your pasture growth will be eaten, and more profits will come from fertilizer and pastures.
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8. Controlling Musk Thistle
By Bruce Anderson, UNL Extension Educator
Does anybody like musk thistles? If not, how about doing something about them. The methods described below can help you keep musk thistle under control this year.
Did you have musk thistles last year? If so, walk out in those same infected areas in mid-April and I'm certain you will find more healthy, robust thistle plants growing in their circular, rosette form. In fact, thistles can be especially troublesome after drought.
The rosette growth form is the ideal stage for controlling these plants this year. That means spray herbicides soon, while your musk thistle plants still are in that rosette form, and very few plants will send up flowering stalks for hand digging later.
Several herbicides are effective and recommended for musk thistle control. One of the most effective is Tordon 22K. But be careful with Tordon since it also can kill woody plants, including trees you might want to keep. 2,4-D also works very well, but you will get a little better thistle control by using a bit less 2,4-D and adding a small amount of Banvel or Clarity to the mix.
Some newer herbicides also help control musk thistles in pastures – like Redeem, Grazon, Ally and Curtail. If you aren't satisfied with how well other herbicides have worked, give these a try. No matter which weed killer you use, be sure to read and follow label instructions, and be sure to spray on time.
All these herbicides will work for you this spring if you spray soon, before musk thistles bolt and send up their flowering stalks. After flowering, though, the shovel is about the only method remaining to control thistles this year.
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9. Poisonous Plants
By Don Janssen, UNL Extension Educator
Soon horses and other livestock will be trading in the hay and grain feeds for the forages of the pastures. Along with the green grasses and other tasty forbs there may be some plants that are not so kind. Knowing the symptoms of plant poisoning and how to identify these plants will help you keep your animals healthy.
Here are a couple websites you may want to visit.
Horse Nutrition- Poisonous Plants- The Ohio State University
Cornell University Poisonous Plants Informational Database
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10. Horse Pasture Basics For Acreage Owners
By Paul Hay, UNL Extension Educator
Acres Per Horse
Many times acreage owners have horses, ponies, or a few cattle. In Southeast Nebraska it takes four acres of pasture per cow, horse or couple ponies for grazing season. This would increase to ten acres in areas of Northwest Nebraska. We have a five month grazing season from May 1 - September 30 for cool season grasses or June 1 - October 31 for warm season pastures. If you have more horse than pasture you will end up with weeds and little grass. Horses are hard on pasture for several reasons. There hoof action is hard on grass. Horses nip grass off with their teeth, allowing them to cut it closer to the ground than other grazing animals. Horses then to work fences quite hard, both leaning into them and cribbing them (chewing on wood boards). Horses are quite picky eaters and will return again and again to young tender regrowth until they have killed it while practically ignoring other parts of the pasture.
Pasture Layout
Lets say that the acreage owners has eight acres to use for pasture and two horses to graze. My suggestion would be to fence off a one-half acre lot area to keep for exercise, hay feeding, grain bunk, and water access. This will be a sacrifice area and will likely have little grass production because of constant access. The other seven-plus acres would be cross fenced into at least two and better four areas or paddocks. If there were four then it might be good to seed two to cool season grass and two to warm season grass. We would start spring grazing in one cool season pasture, switch to the other in a couple of weeks, then back and forth until the warm season pastures are ready to go in late June or early July. We would then start a rotation between them every couple of weeks until we could go back to the cool season pasture in September if we get some rain. Using some hay during drier periods of weather could provide relief for the pastures.
Cool Season Grass Pastures
Cool season pastures in Eastern Nebraska would be seeded to smooth bromegrass with mixtures of orchardgrass and timothy. In Western Nebraska cool season grasses like western wheatgrass and crested wheatgrass can be used in bottoms. Cool season pastures benefit greatly from applications of nitrogen fertilizer at 40-80 pounds per acre applied in March or early April and many times phosphorus fertilizer applied according to soil test needs. These pastures will also benefit from manure applications from stall areas and the dry lot feeding area..
Warm Season Grass Pastures
Warm season grasses for Eastern Nebraska would include big bluestem, indiangrass, sideoats grama, switchgrass, little bluestem, prairie dropseed. These should not be grazed until after June 1 and any fertilizer applied should be less than 40 pounds of nitrogen per acre and done after May 15. In Western Nebraska grasses like blue grama, sideoats grama, hairy grama, and little bluestem would be the best choices. Legumes like red clover, alfalfa, hairy vetch, birdsfoot trefoil, and annual lespedeza’s can add to grazing value. They also are somewhat hard to manage as they are badly damaged by many weed control choices and for cattle can pose some risk for bloat.
Realistic plans for your pasture can reduce damage and provide feed & exercise for your grazing livestock.
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11. An Acre as the Measure for Land Area
By Tom Dorn, UNL Extension Educator
The unit of land area in the United States is the acre. An acre contains 43,560 square feet. Have you ever wondered why an acre is 43,560 square feet instead of a round number like 40,000 or 50,000 square feet? The story goes like this. When plowing with a yoke of oxen, it was standard practice to rest the animals (and the farmer) after plowing a furrow 1/8 mile (660 feet) long. An eighth of a mile therefore became known as a furrow-long or furlong; (a furlong is a nearly forgotten term for distance, except at horse racing tracks where it remains in common use).
The usual practice after plowing a furlong was to then turn the team around on a "land" and plow the other direction. Lands were laid out so the farmer would be able to finish a land every 10 rounds with a 10 inch plowshare (about 16.5 feet). One could imagine that perhaps farmers used a pole or rod that was 16.5 feet long when laying out lands because this measure of distance is still called a rod today.
By starting early in the morning, two lands could be finished before noon with a good yoke of oxen. At noon, the farmer stopped for his noon meal and to feed, water, and rest his animals. After the noon break, another two lands could be finished before quitting time. Four lands, or forty rounds (80 furrows) measured 16.5 x 4 = 66 feet across by 1/8 mile (660 feet) long and was considered a good days work with a walking plow. The area plowed was therefore 43,560 square feet and became the standard unit of land area we call an acre.
By the way, a farmer who plowed 80 furrows an eighth of a mile long would have walked ten miles while wrestling with the hand guided walking plow. Is it any wonder this measure of land area became known as an acre (ache-er)! Actually, the Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary states that the name comes from the Old English ‘aecer'; akin to Old High German ‘ackar' (field), Latin ‘ager' (field), Greek ‘agros' (field), or Latin ‘agere' (to drive).
HECTARE – In the metric system the standard unit of land area is the hectare. A hectare is 10,000 square meters. Ten thousand square meters to a hectare is an intuitive quantity. It is easily remembered, measured and computed.
CONVERSIONS – To convert from hectares to acres multiply hectares by 2.47. To convert from acres to hectares multiply acres by 0.4047.
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12. Keep Horses Away From Your Drainfield
By Sharon Skipton, Extension Educator and Jan Hygnstrom, Extension Project Manager
The soil characteristics of your drainfield area have a huge impact on how well your septic system treats wastewater. There are two important ways that soil treats wastewater - through the soil's physical characteristics and as a site for biological activity. It treats wastewater by filtering out particles, removing some chemicals and nutrients, and acting as a site for destroying pathogens. The soil where the drainfield is located should not be compacted, as compaction will prevent the drainfield from treating wastewater properly. While the grass may look greener over the drainfield, horses can compact the soil, and should be kept away from the area.
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13. 613 Certified Onsite Wastewater Professionals
By Sharon Skipton, Extension Educator and Jan Hygnstrom, Extension Project Manager
Congratulations to the 613 people who passed the exam and became Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality certified onsite professionals. New regulations require having a certified professional, environmental health professional, or registered engineer at every active onsite wastewater treatment job site beginning January 1, 2006. Certification is granted upon passing an exam administered by NDEQ. A total of 45 exam sessions were held by NDEQ in 2005 and early 2006.
UNL-Extension developed and taught onsite wastewater certification classes to help individuals prepare for their exam, with attendance being voluntary. Classes focused on water quality/environment, engineering/groundwater and biology/soils. Twenty-one full-day classes were offered during 2005 and early 2006 in Scotts Bluff, North Platte, Kearney, Grand Island, Mead, Norfolk, Omaha, and Lincoln.
A full listing of certified onsite professionals is available on the NDEQ website: www.deq.state.ne.us. Check it out, and be sure to use a certified professional to have your system pumped, designed, installed, repaired, inspected, etc.
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14. Backyard Bird Paradise
By John Hay, UNL Extension Educator
The great back yard bird watch was a few weeks ago and you missed it. It’s ok, your birds won’t mind that you didn’t count them and send their numbers into Cornell, and maybe if you would have they would consider it an invasion of privacy. Birds are in our backyards all year round and come for many reasons. Food, water, shelter, nesting are the core needs of a bird and they are finding one of these in your backyard. I have been putting birdfeeders in my backyard for a couple of years now and I adjust the seed mix to attract different kinds of birds. For example thistle seed for finches and sunflower seeds for cardinals etc. I still get mostly sparrows which are annoyingly versatile. Beyond feeding though I have been thinking of ways to attract more birds and not just for food and water.
Different birdseed attracts different birds so it would make sense that different plants would attract different birds. Many desirable bird species eat mainly seeds and berries with a few insects including cardinals, finches, grosbeaks, etc, while other species feed on insects as a greater part of their diet including robins, wrens, and bluebirds. Attracting birds to backyard can be as simple as feeding them, but having them nest nearby or on your property can add to the enjoyment.
Flowers can attract bird that eat their seeds, or in the case of hummingbirds eat the nectar. Great bird flowers are bachelor’s button, cosmos, marigolds, sunflowers, poppies, asters, blazing star, coreopsis, goldenrods, ironweed, purple coneflowers, and wild strawberry, just to name a few. Shrubs also can be very attractive to birds for food and for shelter reasons. Some good bird food shrubs are; honeysuckle, currants, raspberries, viburniums, dogwoods, sumacs, and barberries. Shrubs for nesting sites are; alders elderberries, lilacs, willows, yews, spireas, roses, junipers, and rhododendrons. Consider a line of shrubs near a windbreak to make great place for birds to nest in summer and feed on spring, summer, and winter berries.
Lawn can also be an attractive place for birds if the lawn has what they want. A bird friendly lawn is one with lots of insects, and I’m not talking all bad insects. Earthworms are a great attractant for robins and are also beneficial for the lawn. To make your lawn bird and nature friendly; mow it high, 2-2.5 inches all year, use mulching blade to incorporate clippings, and use a high carbon source of fertilizer like compost. Birds will be happy and you will be doing a lot less work than trying to maintain a “perfect” bird free lawn.
Sometimes it takes luck to get the most colorful bird species but if you grow it they will come. So provide them with more than food and water, give them shelter in the form of shrubs and evergreen trees, give them nesting site in the form birdhouses, trees and shrubs. Enjoy the birds and next year log on to The Great Backyard Bird County, http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc and count birds for a Cornell Study.
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15. Careless Mowing a Danger for All
By Sharry Nielsen, UNL Extension Educator
Every spring, Nebraskans follow the annual path to lawn and garden care. Neighbors pull out mowers, lawn tractors, edgers, and tillers to get a start on a beautiful lawn and garden. But, along with the trusted equipment, some may also pull out old, unsafe operating habits, and that is a dangerous path to follow.
Kids riding on mowers is one careless old habit. The loss of a finger, toe or even a life only emphasizes the danger. Riding mowers are designed for mowing. While they may provide many safety features for the operator, they are not built for passengers or for the safety of passengers.
Racing mowers is another habit that should be broken. Operators need to remember that riding mowers have cutting blades sharp enough to do tough yard work. They are not designed for speed.
Keep these tips in mind as the mowing season begins:
- Read the operator’s manual before you start the mower.
- Keep children out of the mowing area. Not only is the mower dangerous, but the small rocks and debris it throws are also hazards.
- Check all around you before changing directions, especially when backing up.
- Do not allow children to ride or operate riding mowers. They are designed for one adult operator.
- Handle fuel carefully, fill up while the engine is cold, and avoid spilling.
- Clear the mowing area before starting the mower. Pick up rocks, large twigs, toys, and anything that could be thrown by the mower blade.
- Turn off the engine and disconnect the spark plug wire before attempting to unclog or work on a mower.
- Wear proper clothing, including long pants and sturdy shoes.
- Allow plenty of training time when teaching youth to use push or riding mowers. Supervision is the key.
- Keep hands away from moving parts and NEVER work on equipment while it is running.
Carelessness is the leading cause of accidents. When you get out the power equipment this year, stay on the safe operating path.
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